Gender Differences in Mathematics Departments at Colleges and Universities Across the United States:
Towards an Inclusive Environment
Gender Differences in Mathematics Departments at Colleges and Universities Across the United States: Towards an Inclusive Environment
Alexander Rolón
Assistant Professor
Northampton Community College
3835 Green Pond Road
Bethlehem, PA 18020
610.861.4163
arolon@northampton.edu
Introduction
When one thinks of great mathematicians, women do not be what come to mind. Perhaps it is because the development of mathematics, as we know it today, was controlled by men. For example, Sir Isaac Newton, Carl Friedrich Gauss, and Gottfried Leibniz were pioneers in the development of calculus. Women were not permitted to become intellectuals in this sophisticated and complex subject. Mathematics departments across the United States are predominantly male dominated. This disproportionate interest is ingrained back in the elementary (Pérez, 2000) and middle school grades (Hanson, 1992). Research (Eccles, 1986; Nichols, 1989; Zaslavasky, 1994) suggests that females are not encouraged to enroll in higher level mathematics and science curricula due to the lack of self identification, family discouragement and societal prejudices. There is a need for more female representation in the field of mathematics and science.
One way to explain this discrepancy is rooted in Social Identity Theory. Women, like men, challenge themselves but academically there exists a gap in the challenges they take as it relates to mathematics and science. Research further supports gender differentiation when it comes to making mistakes in mathematics performance. Males tend to find a scapegoat for their failures, while females often blame themselves for not preparing adequately (Beal, 2000). When males perform well they attribute it to their proficiency in the subject matter as if it were expected; by contrast women’s success is highly praised to the extent of the effort or time they spent studying the material. The lack of attribution to ability for success and the tendency to attribute failure to a lack of ability promotes low mathematical self-esteem; hence creating a negative association or bias toward other mathematics courses, allowing males to enroll in higher level mathematics curricula. Males have a sense of superiority over females in mathematics.
Women who continue in mathematics courses usually do so in the presence of a group with which they can identify. In addition to these groups, there are national and local associations like The Association for Women in Mathematics and Women in Math, among others. The creation of groups or cohorts helps facilitate and overcome some of the sexist behaviors that exist in the mathematics community. Often times, the women in these groups support each other and become successful. For this, and many other reasons, group identification is essential to the success in future enrollment of women in mathematics curricula.
Individuals get much of their self-esteem from interactions with their peers. The case for females in mathematics is no exception. Without group identification their psychic immunity decreases, and so does their ability to perform well. It is imperative that we as professionals in the field think more inclusively about female capabilities to perform well as it relates to mathematics; hence recognizing that women are also part of the realm of mathematics.
Enhancing Women in Mathematics Through History
Although the history of mathematics is male-centered, there were a few women who were influential and contributed a great deal to the development of mathematics. Maria Agnesi, often times referred to as the first woman professor of mathematics on a university faculty. Sonya Kovalevsky impressed the French Académie des Sciences judges, and unanimously voted her concealed paper, On the Rotation of a Solid Body about a Fixed Point, the winner of the famous Prix Bordin. Because of the exceptional merit of the work, the monetary value of the prize was raised from 3,000 to 5,000 francs, a considerably sum of money at the time. Amelie Emmy Noether, who was a professor at Bryn Mawr College in Philadelphia, PA and known for her work on the Theory of Invariants. These women, as well as others who are not mentioned, were prodigies in their field of expertise. A history of mathematics course could emphasize the contributions of such prolific females, although it is not guaranteed to increase awareness. Mathematics, as a field, is male dominated. Incorporating some biographical vignettes of females into mathematics curricula will help shift the center and help to communicate the message that women are also “good at math.”
Many women feel that graduating with a mathematics degree is equivalent to winning a gold medal in the Olympics. They feel a great deal of accomplishment because of their limited support from their male counterparts. Sexism governs the unwritten, nonmathematical rules of this field. Women often times are told they are not good at math, that they are better at nurturing or in careers where creativity and intuition prevail (Eccles, 1986). Therefore they begin to believe such prejudices and act on them. Counselors, teachers, peers, or even parents who are not “good at math” discourage women to explore other than mathematical opportunities. But once they have accomplished success in mathematics, they want to share with other women. They feel it is important to break the stereotypes and hence educate others and reduce the sexism that exists in mathematics and science. Universities across the country need to have a more mathematics diverse faculty. By having such diversity within the department, perhaps they would attract more females in graduate programs. Furthermore, recognizing this deficiency would create for a more inviting, less intimidating atmosphere for women.
Social Identity Theory suggests that there are some positive intergroup biases when it comes to women succeeding in mathematics. Women value their educational experience in fields like mathematics and science more so than males. Their success is attributed to their preparation and perseverance. They feel as if they are equal to men in the field. Elva Treviño Hart, a Chicano author, who holds a B.S. in Mathematics and an M.S. in Computer Engineering from Stanford University, once said that being a math major gave her the opportunity to express herself without being prejudiced about her gender or her ethnicity in a field where she was “twice a minority”. She and similar women were able to excel because they looked past the sexism and prejudices that this field brings, and because they were determined to succeed regardless of the myriad of obstacles presented to them. Many women don’t want to deal with the pressures and often change careers or go into related fields where mathematics is needed, yet not essential. Moreover, they view themselves as low achievers and feel as if they were more inferior to males. This feeling develops a negative association and belief that males are better than females as it relates to mathematics competence and achievement.
Improving Intergroup Bias
How then do we go about creating an atmosphere of tolerance, respect, and equality? The exploration of the following three activities incorporates methods to improve intergroup bias: 1) recategorization, 2) decategorization and 3) mutual differentiation. Each of these methods is equally important and they bear no order of significance.
Recategorization
Many universities hold lecture series or a mathematics symposia sponsored by mathematics departments, where distinguished mathematicians are invited to present their latest research. A suggestion is that the faculty work together to feature more women in this series or symposium. There are many women mathematicians to choose. For instance Elva Treviño Hart, previously mentioned, is a good example of multiculturalism as well gender issues in mathematics. Below you will read other contemporary female mathematicians who are qualified for such lectures.
Margaret A. M. Murray who wrote a book in 2001 titled: Women Becoming Mathematicians:
Creating a Professional Identity in Post-World War II America, that looks at the lives and careers of thirty-six of the approximately two hundred women who earned Ph.D.s in mathematics in the United States from 1940 to 1959 an era when American mathematical research enjoyed an unprecedented expansion, fueled by the technological successes of World War II and the postwar boom in federal funding for education in the basic sciences. Nevertheless women's share of doctorates earned in mathematics in the United States reached an all-time low. Murray explains: "…the book examines the development of mathematical identity across the life span, from childhood through adulthood and into retirement. It focuses on the process by which women, who are actively involved in the mathematical community, come to ‘know themselves’ as mathematicians. The women's stories are instructive precisely because they do not conform to a set pattern; compelled to improvise, the women mathematicians of the 1940s and 1950s followed diverse paths in their struggle to construct a professional identity in postwar America.”
Lai-Sang Young a pioneer in the field of topology. Her research is on continuous flows on compact 2-manifolds. She has been the keynote speaker at different mathematical association throughout the United States and Europe as well as her home country of China.
Linda Goldway Keen who was born and raised in Bronx NY. Her research involves studying the interplay between the analytic and geometric aspects of classifying Riemann surfaces. Dr. Goldway Keen is one of the few mathematicians to have studied this branch of mathematics.
Lenore Blum has a story of perseverance. She always dreamed on attending Massachusetts Institute of Technology both because it was an excellent place for her to study and also because her husband was there, but she was not accepted. She was discouraged and was not set on taking a degree in mathematics but had other interests so she enrolled in the Department of Architecture at Carnegie Institute of Technology in Pittsburgh. She still wanted to attend MIT and had made a number of unsuccessful applications to there but at last she made a successful one and began to study there while completing her first degree at Simmons College. She was awarded her B.S. from Simmons in 1963 and continued working towards her doctorate at MIT.
These are great examples of contemporary female mathematicians who would make excellent speakers at the lecture series or symposium throughout mathematics departments at colleges and universities in the United States, with the end goal of reducing biases in this field. The experience of both groups working together would be sufficient to agree upon the fact that they are all professional mathematicians, regardless of gender differences.
Decategorization
The male professors, after attending the lecture series or symposium, will discuss with the lecturer how her research could be incorporated into their classes or their own research. The purpose of this activity is to encourage more research and to have the female mathematician as the focal point of the lecture or discussion. It is important to have male mathematicians praise their female counterpart, with the objective of de-emphasizing that mathematics is a male dominated field. Making these females mathematicians the key person and expert in the field will confirm their role in the mathematics world; hence, breaking the stereotypes that are associated with their performance in mathematics.
Mutual Differentiation
Explaining how history has shaped the way we learn mathematics today would be interesting to research to put into practice. The faculty will explore ways in which females learn mathematics as opposed to men. Pedagogical practices will also be explored to enhance the ways females perceive mathematics. Two of the key questions to answer are: Is a hands-on curriculum embedded in their programs and/or classes? Are there different delivery methods rather than all lecture classes? The latter will explain spatial ability and its influence in learning mathematics. Understanding how females think is fundamental to the creation of a less biased environment. They would then discuss how these approaches can benefit men as well. As a suggestion, a lesson attached in Appendix A can be used as a collaborative group work where students will be aware of female mathematicians. Mathematics reform calls for a more inclusive curricula where creative minds are generated.
Summary
Inclusion of women in mathematics programs as well as an increase of the number of female faculty at colleges and universities will yield an environment that is tolerant and conducive to learning. However, there are many obstacles that this change may possibly bring. Resistance on the faculty due to the lack of women input on this issue is a possible downfall. Bringing females into the scheme of things may spark some negativism creating tension among the male faculty. Yet this can be a constructive, learning experience for all. Social Identity Theory explains how clusters among women will be encouraged and expected. However, conveying the reality of sexist behaviors in mathematics may put this issue into perspective. It is important to understand women’s role and thoughts about sexism in the mathematics field in general as well as their feelings about being a minority in the department.
Initiating discussion about gender differentiation and sexism at mathematics departments among American institutions of higher learning, will make certain of one thing: communication of ideas that otherwise would have been overlooked will be occurring. I am not an expert in sexism in the mathematics field; however, I am aware that it exists. This is a step closer towards a more inclusive way of thinking. Being aware of the biases should be the foremost, intricate step in understanding our own biases and prejudices. Do we as teachers call on males more often than females? And when we call on females, do we give the same wait-time for them to respond as we would for males? If we can go beyond the basics and think about our own personal experiences, we can be at a much better place in our professional lives.
We need to take initiative, be a pioneer, and be active participants in reducing gender biases in the mathematics field. We must understand that we are all mathematicians, regardless of sex or any other characteristics that come with each and everyone of us; by doing so we build a better rapport within the mathematics community and a more inclusive atmosphere.
In conclusion, in order to create an atmosphere of respect and tolerance one must have knowledge, awareness, and skills when it comes to female competence in mathematics. Knowing what to do when females are in our classes becomes an intricate part of our professional growth and their interest in mathematics as a career; awareness of the fact that sexism exists in today’s society will help with our own peace of mind to accept; and we gain skills to be sensitive to everyone, especially women who have been underrepresented in mathematics for a long time.
References
Beal, C. (2000). Gaining confidence in mathematics: Instructional technology for girls.
Paper presented at the International Conference on Mathematics/Science Education & Technology, Sand Diego, CA.
Eccles, J. (1986). Gender-roles and women’s achievement. Educational Research, 15(6),
15-19.
Hanson, K. (1992). Teaching mathematics effectively and equitably to females.
NY: Eric Clearinghouse on Urban Education.
Nichols, R. (1989). Gender and mathematics contests. Arithmetic Teacher, 41(5), 238-
243.
Pérez, C. (2000). Equity in standard-based elementary mathematics classrooms.
Retrieved July 10, 2007, from http://wge.terc.edu/equity.html.
Zaslavsky, C. (1994). A mind is a terrible thing to waste!: Gender, race, ethnicity, and
class. In Fear of math: How to get over it and get on with your life (pp. 69-98).
New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Appendix A
Lesson Plan #1: A Historical Perspective
Objective: To enhance student awareness of women mathematicians in education.
Grade Level: High School
Activity: Students will be paired and they will research a female mathematician of their choice, with instructor approval. They will then create an article for a newspaper with a short biography as well as one of her mathematical innovation. The article must be era appropriate. The students will then have to put together a live interview of this person to be presented in the class. The purpose is to emphasize the mathematical achievement(s) of this person. (In the case where two male students are working together, they will need to come up with a creative way to convey her contributions to mathematics.) The instructor will help the students understand the mathematical concepts of these mathematicians.
Assessment: A rubric will be developed for both the written article and the interview. The students will have access to this rubric while they are researching and preparing their presentations.
Technology: The students are encouraged to use power point presentations or other technology to enhance their presentations.
Looking back: Individually, the students will write a journal entry reflecting on this activity. In it they should explain what they learned, how valuable it was as well as their reactions to the activity.
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